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Severe weather refers to any dangerous meteorological phenomena with the potential to cause damage, serious social disruption, or loss of human life.[1] Types of severe weather phenomena vary, depending on the latitude, altitude, topography, and atmospheric conditions. High winds, hail, excessive precipitation, and wildfires are forms of severe weather. Severe weather is caused by thunderstorms, downbursts, lightning, tornadoes, waterspouts, tropical cyclones, and extratropical cyclones. Regional severe weather phenomena include blizzards, snowstorms, ice storms, and duststorms.[2]
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Meteorologists generally define severe weather as any aspect of the weather that poses risks to life, property or requires the intervention of authorities. A narrower definition of severe weather is any weather phenomena relating to severe thunderstorms.[2][3]
According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), severe weather can be categorized into two groups, general severe weather and localized severe weather.[1] Nor'easters, European wind storms, and the phenomena that accompany them form over wide geographic areas. These occurrences are classified as general severe weather.[1] Downbursts and tornadoes are more localized and therefore have a more limited geographic effect. These forms of weather are classified as localized severe weather.[1] The term severe weather is technically not the same phenomenon as extreme weather. Extreme weather describes unusual weather events that are at the extremes of the historical distribution for a given area.[4]
Organized severe weather occurs from the same conditions that generate ordinary thunderstorms: atmospheric moisture, lift, and instability.[5] A wide variety of conditions cause severe weather. Several factors can convert thunderstorms into severe weather. For example, a pool of cold air aloft may aid in the development of large hail from an otherwise innocuous appearing thunderstorm. However, the most severe hail and tornadoes are produced by supercell thunderstorms, and the worst downbursts and derechos (straight-line winds) are produced by bow echoes. Both of these types of storms tend to form in environments high in wind shear.[5]
Floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, and thunderstorms are considered to be the most destructive weather-related natural disasters. Although these weather phenomena are all related to cumulonimbus clouds, they form and develop under different conditions and geographic locations. The relationship between these weather events and their formation requirements are used to develop models to predict the most frequent and possible locations. This information is used to notify affected areas and save lives.
Severe thunderstorms can be assessed in three different categories. These are "approaching severe", "severe", and "significantly severe".
Approaching severe is defined as hail between 1⁄2 to 1 inch (13 to 25 mm) diameter or winds between 50 and 58 M.P.H. (50 knots). In the United States, such storms will usually warrant a Significant Weather Alert.[6]
Severe is defined as hail 1 inch (25 mm) diameter or larger, winds 58 M.P.H. or stronger, or a tornado.[7]
Significant severe is defined as hail 2 inches (51 mm) in diameter or larger, winds 75 M.P.H. (65 knots) or stronger, a tornado of strength EF2 or stronger, the occurrence of flash flood phenomena by heavy precipitation, or extreme temperatures.[1][8]
Both severe and significant severe events warrant a severe thunderstorm warning from the United States National Weather Service (excludes flash floods), the Environment Canada, the Australian Bureau of Meteorology, or the Meteorological Service of New Zealand if the event occurs in those countries. If a tornado is occurring or if it is likely to occur, the severe thunderstorm warning will be superseded by a tornado warning in the United States and Canada.
A severe weather outbreak is typically considered to be when 10 or more tornadoes, some will likely be long tracked and violent, and many large hail or damaging wind reports. Severity is also dependent on the size of the geographic area affected, whether it covers hundreds or thousands of square kilometers.[9]
High winds are known to cause damage, depending upon their strength.
Wind speeds as low as 23 knots (43 km/h) may lead to power outages when tree branches fall and disrupt power lines.[10] Some species of trees are more vulnerable to winds. Trees with shallow roots are more prone to uproot and brittle trees such as eucalyptus, sea hibiscus, and avocado are more prone branch damage.[11]
Wind gusts may cause poorly designed suspension bridges to sway. When wind gusts harmonize with the frequency of the swaying bridge, the bridge may fail as occurred with the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940.[12]
Hurricane-force winds, caused by individual thunderstorms, thunderstorm complexes, tornadoes, extratropical cyclones, or tropical cyclones can destroy mobile homes and structurally damage buildings with foundations. Winds of this strength due to downslope winds off terrain have been known to shatter windows and sandblast paint from cars.[13]
Once winds exceed 135 knots (250 km/h) within strong tropical cyclones and tornadoes, homes completely collapse, and significant damage is done to larger buildings. Total destruction to man-made structures occurs when winds reach 175 knots (324 km/h). The Saffir-Simpson scale for cyclones and Enhanced Fujita scale (TORRO scale in Europe) for tornados were developed to help estimate wind speed from the damage they cause.[14][15]
Downbursts are created within thunderstorms by significantly rain-cooled air which upon reaching ground level spreads out in all directions and produce strong winds. Unlike winds in a tornado, winds in a downburst are not rotational but are directed outwards from the point where they strike land or water. "Dry downbursts" are associated with thunderstorms with very little precipitation,[16] while wet downbursts are generated by thunderstorms with large amounts. Microbursts are very small and macrobursts are large-scale downbursts.[17] The heat burst is created by vertical currents on the backside of old outflow boundaries and squall lines where rainfall is lacking. Heat bursts generate significantly higher temperatures due to the lack of rain-cooled air in their formation.[18] Derecho are longer, usually stronger, forms of downburst winds characterized by straight-lined windstorms.[19]
Downbursts create vertical wind shear or microburst which are dangerous to aviation.[20]
A squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a cold front.[21][22] In the early 20th century, the term was used synonymously with cold front.[23] The squall line contains heavy precipitation, hail, frequent lightning, strong straight line winds, and possibly tornadoes or waterspouts.[24] Severe weather, in the form of strong straight-line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line forms a bow echo, in the farthest portion of the bow.[25] Tornadoes can be found along waves within a line echo wave pattern (LEWP) where mesoscale low pressure areas are present.[26] Some summer bow echoes are called derechos, and move fast over large territories.[27] A wake lowor a mesoscale low pressure area forms behind the rain shield, a high pressure system under the rain canopy, of mature squall lines and are sometimes associated with a heat burst.[28]
A dangerous rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and the base of a cumulonimbus cloud (thundercloud) or a cumulus cloud, in rare cases. Tornadoes come in many sizes but typically form a visible condensation funnel whose narrowest end reaches the earth and surrounded by a cloud of debris and dust.[29]
Tornadoes wind speeds generally average between 40 miles per hour (64 km/h) and 110 miles per hour (180 km/h). They are approximately 250 feet (76 m) across and travel a few miles (kilometers) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds in excess of 300 miles per hour (480 km/h), may stretch more than a mile (1.6 km) across, and maintain contact with the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).[5][30][31]
Tornadoes, despite being one of the most destructive weather phenomena are generally short lived. A long-lived tornado generally lasts no more than an hour, but some have been known to last for 2 hours or longer (for example, the Tri-state tornado). Due to their relatively short duration, less information is known about the development and formation of tornadoes.[32]
Very high winds can be caused by mature tropical cyclones. A hurricane’s heavy surf created by such winds may cause harm to marine life either close to or upon the surface of the water, such as coral reefs.[33] Coastal regions may receive significant damage from a tropical cyclone while inland regions are relatively safe from the strong winds, due to their rapid dissipation over land.
Severe weather phenomena characterized by spiraling funnel-shaped wind currents formed over bodies of water and connect to cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally defined as tornadoes or non-supercelled tornadoes that develop over bodies of water.[34]
Waterspouts are not known for inflicting much damage because they are not commonly exposed to land, but they are capable of traveling over land. Some waterspouts are known to produce hurricane strength winds and are capable of producing equivalent damage. Vegetation, weakly constructed buildings, and other infrastructure may be destroyed by waterspouts. Automobiles may be lifted by to advancing waterspouts. Heavy precipitation may be noted, developed from the water raised by the wind currents. Waterspouts do not generally last long over terrestrial environments as the friction produced easily dissipates the winds. Strong horizontal winds cause waterspouts to dissipate,[35] destroying the concentration of the updrafts. Waterspouts may damage coral reefs and marine life close to the ocean surface.
Severe local windstorms in Europe that develop from winds off the North Atlantic. These windstorms are commonly associated with the destructive extratropical cyclones and their low pressure frontal systems.[36] European windstorms occur mainly in the seasons of autumn and winter.[37]
A synoptic-scale extratropical storm along the East Coast of the United States and Atlantic Canada is called a Nor'easter. They are named because their winds come from the northeast, especially in the coastal areas of the Northeastern United States and Atlantic Canada. More specifically, it describes a low pressure area whose center of rotation is just off the East Coast and whose leading winds in the left forward quadrant rotate onto land from the northeast. Nor'easters may cause coastal flooding, coastal erosion, and hurricane force winds. Nor'easters can be devastating and damaging, especially in the winter months. Most damage and deaths are cold related as nor'easters are known for bringing extremely cold air down from the Arctic air mass. Nor'easters thrive on the converging polar cold air mass and the warmer ocean water of the Gulf Stream.[38]
An unusual form of windstorm that is characterized by the existence of large quantities of sand and dust particles carried by moving air.[39] Dust storms frequently develop during periods of droughts, or over arid and semi-arid regions. Dust storms can be classified into different weather systems based upon how they develop. Dust storms formed on bordering cool and warm air fronts, results in the formation of a gust system presenting as dust storms. This storm is part of an extratropical cyclone. Dust storms can form from the outflow boundary of a dissipating thunderstorm, known as a haboob.
Dust storms have numerous hazards and are capable of causing deaths. Visibility may be reduced dramatically, risks of vehicle and aircraft crashes are possible. The particulates may reduce oxygen intake by the lungs,[40] potentially resulting in suffocation. Damage can also be inflicted upon the eyes due to abrasion.[41]
Dust storms can produce many issues for agricultural industries as well. Soil erosion is one of the most common hazards and decreases arable lands. Dust and sand particles can cause severe weathering of buildings and rock formations. Nearby bodies of water may be polluted by settling dust and sand, killing aquatic organisms. Decrease in exposure to sunlight can affect plant growth, as well as decrease in infrared radiation may cause decreased temperatures.
Dust and sand particles associated in dust storms can also be carried away from their origins to other geographic locations thousands of miles away.[42] While this may be hazardous for countries receiving these dust and sand particles, they are also beneficial to certain areas. Many rain-forests, like the Amazon, rely on settling dust and sand from deserts to receive the nutrients required for plant growth. All dust storms don't occur naturally. The loss of vegetation from human activities can cause dust storms to occur, as in the 1930s Dust Bowl.
The most common cause of wildfires varies throughout the world. In the United States, Canada, and Northwest China, for example, lightning is the major source of ignition. In other parts of the world, human involvement is a major contributor. In Mexico, Central America, South America, Africa, Southeast Asia, Fiji, and New Zealand, wildfires can be attributed to human activities such as animal husbandry, agriculture, and land-conversion burning. Human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires in China and in the Mediterranean Basin. In Australia, the source of wildfires can be traced to both lightning strikes and human activities such as machinery sparks and cast-away cigarette butts."[43] Wildfires have a rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense, uninterrupted fuels.[44] They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometers per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometers per hour (14 mph) in grasslands.[45] Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing.[46]
Wildfires may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through the air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks.[47][48] Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels that surround a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands.[49] Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires, spot fires are known to occur as far as 10 kilometers (6 mi) from the fire front.[50] Since the mid 1980s, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season in the Western United States.[51]
Any form of thunderstorm that produces precipitating hailstones is known as a hail storm.[52] Hailstorms are generally capable of developing in any geographic location where thunderclouds are present, occurring mostly in dry conditions.[53] Most hailstorms develop in the presence of cumulonimbus clouds and other severe weather phenomena. The updrafts and downdrafts present within cumulonimbus clouds cause water molecules to freeze and solidify, creating hailstones and other forms of solid precipitation.[54] Due to their larger density, these hailstones become heavy enough to overcome the density of the cloud and fall towards the ground. The downdrafts in cumulonimbus clouds can also cause increases in the speed of the falling hailstones. The term "hailstorm" is usually used to describe the existence of significant quantities or size of hailstones present.
Hailstones can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and crops.[55] Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma. Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 12th century in Wellesbourne, Britain.[56] The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska, USA The hailstone had a diameter of 7 inches (18 cm) and a circumference of 18.75 inches (47.6 cm).[57]
While flooding relates to rivers rising outside their normals banks, flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably urban environments, is subjected to rapid floods.[58] Meteorologically, excessive rains occur within a plume of air with high amounts of moisture (also known as an atmospheric river) which is directed around an upper level cold-core low or a tropical cyclone.[59] Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and are usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in dense populated urban environments, where less plants and bodies of water are presented to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within experiencing areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of landslide phenomena. Like all forms of flooding phenomenon, flash flooding can also spread and produce waterborne and insect-borne diseases cause by microorganisms. Flash flooding can be caused by extensive rainfall released by tropical cyclones of any strength or the sudden thawing effect of ice dams.[60][61] Human activities can also cause flash floods to occur. When dams, constructed for hydro-electricity, have failed, large quantities of water can be released and can destroy everything within its path.[61]
Seasonal wind shifts lead to long-lasting wet seasons which produce the bulk of annual precipitation in areas such as Southeast Asia, Australia, Western Africa, eastern South America, and Mexico. Widespread flooding occurs if rainfall is excessive,[62] which can lead to landslides and mudflows in mountainous areas.[63] Floods cause rivers to exceed their capacity with nearby buildings becoming submerged.[64] Flooding may be exacerbated if there are fires during the previous dry season. This may cause soils which are sandy or composed of loam to become hydrophobic and repel water.[65]
Government organizations help their residents deal with wet season floods though floodplain mapping and information on erosion control. Mapping is conducted to help determine areas that may be more prone to flooding.[66] Erosion control instructions are provided through outreach over the telephone or the internet.[67]
Flood waters that occur during Monsoon seasons can often host numerous protozoa, bacterial, and viral microorganisms.[68] Mosquitoes and flies will lay their eggs within the contaminated bodies of water. These disease-agents may cause infections of food borne and waterborne diseases. Diseases associated with exposure to flood waters include: Malaria, Cholera, Typhoid, Hepatitis A, and the Common cold.[69] Possible trenchfoot infections may also occur when personnel are exposed for extended periods of time within flooded areas.[70]
A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous thunderstorms that produce strong winds and flooding rain. A tropical cyclone feeds on heat released when moist air rises, resulting in condensation of water vapor contained in the moist air. Tropical cyclones may produce torrential rain, high waves, and damaging storm surge.[71] Heavy rains produce significant inland flooding. Storm surges may produce extensive coastal flooding up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the coastline.
Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they are also important factors in the precipitation regimes of areas they impact. They bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions.[72] Areas in their path can receive a year's worth of rainfall from a tropical cyclone passage.[73] Tropical cyclones can also relieve drought conditions.[72] They also carry heat and energy away from the tropics and transport it toward temperate latitudes, which makes them an important part of the global atmospheric circulation mechanism. As a result, tropical cyclones help to maintain equilibrium in the Earth's troposphere.
When extratropical cyclones deposit heavy, wet snow with a snow-water equivalent (SWE) ratio of between 6:1 and 12:1 and a weight in excess of 10 pounds per square foot (~50 kg/m2)[74] piles onto trees or electricity lines, significant damage may occur on a scale usually associated with strong tropical cyclones.[75] An avalanche can occur with a sudden thermal or mechanical impact on snow that has accumulated on a mountain, which causes the snow to rush downhill suddenly. Preceding an avalanche is a phenomenon known as an avalanche wind caused by the approaching avalanche itself, which adds to its destructive potential.[76] Large amounts of snow which accumulate on top of man-made structures can lead to structural failure.[77] During snowmelt, acidic precipitation which previously fell in the snow pack is released and harms marine life.[78]
Lake-effect snow is produced in the winter in the shape of one or more elongated bands. This occurs when cold winds move across long expanses of warmer lake water, providing energy and picking up water vapor which freezes and is deposited on the lee shores.[79] For more information on this effect see the main article.
Conditions within blizzards often include large quantities of blowing snow and strong winds which may significantly reduce visibility. Reduced viability of personnel on foot may result in extended exposure to the blizzard and increase the chance of becoming lost. The strong winds associated with blizzards create wind chill that can result in frostbites and hypothermia. The strong winds present in blizzards are capable of damaging plants and may cause power outrages, frozen pipes, and cut off fuel lines[80]
The precipitation pattern of Nor'easters is similar to other mature extratropical storms. Nor'easters can cause heavy rain or snow, either within their comma-head precipitation pattern or along their trailing cold or stationary front. Nor'easters can occur at any time of the year but are mostly known for their presence in the winter season.[38] Severe European windstorms are often characterized by heavy precipitation as well.[37]
Ice storms are also known as a Silver storm, referring to the color of the freezing precipitation.[81] Ice storms are caused by liquid precipitation which freezes upon cold surfaces and leads to the gradual development of a thickening layer of ice.[81] The accumulations of ice during the storm can be extremely destructive. Trees and vegetation can be destroyed and in turn may bring down power lines, causing the loss of heat and communication lines.[82] Roofs of buildings and automobiles may be severely damaged. Gas pipes can become frozen or even damaged causing gas leaks. Avalanches may develop due to the extra weight of the present. Visibility can be reduce dramatically. The aftermath of an ice storm may result in severe flooding due to sudden thawing, with large quantities of displaced water, especially near lakes, rivers, and bodies of water.[83]